Abstract
The small-scale physics within the first centimetres above the wavy air–sea interface are the gateway for transfers of momentum and scalars between the atmosphere and the ocean. We present an experimental investigation of the surface wind stress over laboratory wind-generated waves. Measurements were performed at the University of Delaware's large wind-wave-current facility using a recently developed state-of-the-art wind-wave imaging system. The system was deployed at a fetch of 22.7 m, with wind speeds from 2.19 to 16.63 m s−1 . Airflow velocity fields were acquired using particle image velocimetry above the wind waves down to 100 μm above the surface, and wave profiles were detected using laser-induced fluorescence. The airflow intermittently separates downwind of wave crests, starting at wind speeds as low as 2.19 m s−1 . Such events are accompanied by a dramatic drop in tangential viscous stress past the wave's crest, and a gradual regeneration of the viscous sublayer upon the following (downwind) crest. This contrasts with non-airflow separating waves, where the surface viscous stress drop is less significant. Airflow separation becomes increasingly dominant with increasing wind speed and wave slope ak (where a and k are peak wave amplitude and wavenumber, respectively). At the highest wind speed ( 16.63 m s−1 ), airflow separation occurs over nearly 100 % of the wave crests. The total air–water momentum flux is partitioned between viscous stress and form drag at the interface. Viscous stress (respectively form drag) dominates at low (respectively high) wave slopes. Tangential viscous forcing makes a minor contribution ( ∼3% ) to wave growth.
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